Foreign Language Teaching Methodology
Traditional Method (also known as the Grammar-Translation Method)
At a time when audio and video materials did not exist, the range of teaching methods was quite limited. Moreover, many languages were learned primarily for the purpose of reading comprehension (Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Ancient Hebrew, etc.). Language learning was therefore the privilege of the educated, or took place within the natural context of encounters between peoples.
It was for the former group that the first methods were developed. These methods gave grammar a central — almost sacred — role, and only literary texts were studied. Teaching was conducted through the foreign language itself, and alongside traditional grammar exercises, translation (into and from the target language) occupied an important place. The aim was to read well, write well, and translate accurately.
From a didactic point of view, this method proved poorly suited to oral communication, and the student remained relatively passive.
Direct Method (pre-1950)
As a reaction to the grammar-translation method, the direct method sought to immerse the student directly in the target language, without recourse to explanation or translation in another language.
The guiding principle is that to learn a language one must practise it — and therefore speak it. The emphasis thus shifts from “knowledge about the language” to “use of the language”.
With this approach, teaching swung from one extreme to another. It overlooked the fact that even a native speaker who is educated has been through school. And even if a child effectively acquires linguistic reflexes at home through immersion, they also develop knowledge through books, media, and culture. Linguistic competence is therefore not limited to communicative reflexes — it also encompasses a “knowledge about the language” as well as sociological and cultural understanding intimately linked to it.
Structural Behaviourism (1950) — The Beginnings of Didactics
The 1950s mark the true beginnings of language didactics as a discipline. Questions began to arise about how learning actually takes place. Under the influence of behaviourist psychology and structural linguistics, this approach proposed a precise sequence: the student listens, then speaks, then reads, then writes.
Real-life situations must be simulated as much as possible, making the use of dialogues indispensable. The use of the mother tongue is prohibited, and grammatical analysis is discouraged.
Audio-Visual Method (late 1960s–1970s) — S.G.A.V. (Structuro-Global Audio-Visual)
This next stage developed in a specific political context. The spread of English following the Second World War alerted France to the danger of the decline of French. To ensure the continued influence of the French language, France mobilised linguists, educators, and specialists in language teaching methodology in an effort to develop the most effective tools for teaching French.
Across the Atlantic, similar efforts were under way, leading to great emulation in the field.
From a practical standpoint, the famous “global methods” appeared. The written content of textbooks was reduced in favour of images and recordings. Grammar was reduced to a strict minimum, or eliminated altogether. Immersion was prioritised. Realism was paramount: everyday situations were staged, and “refined language” was abandoned in favour of everyday speech.
The S.G.A.V. methodology required fairly significant and costly equipment (tape recorders, language laboratories, etc.) as well as thorough teacher training. It drew on the legacy of the direct method, while containing the seeds of most of the concepts that would emerge in the following decades.
Notional-Functional and Communicative Approaches (1980s–1990s)
In the 1970s, institutional and political demand from Europe led to what became known as the “Council of Europe work”. These deeply influenced language teaching. They led to the notional-functional and communicative approaches. Notably drawing on the work of the Oxford school, and given the growing interest in the sociolinguistic aspects of communication, Chomsky’s notion of “linguistic competence” (or grammatical competence) was replaced by the broader concept of “communicative competence”.
In this framework, knowing the linguistic system is not sufficient — one must also be able to use it appropriately. An important distinction is made between “grammatical norms” and “norms of use”.
Autonomy, the pursuit of authenticity, and a shift in the teacher’s role characterise this turning point. Activities that reproduce or contain real communicative situations are favoured. Courses are often designed around themes — the hotel, the market, the celebration — which fits well with the notional-functional approach.
Action-Oriented Approach
The action-oriented approach is the most recent major doctrine in language teaching. It invites the learner to set themselves a goal that goes beyond the mere repetition of linguistic structures. “The project” is situated within a context of real-world achievement that requires certain prerequisite skills as well as general knowledge. Preparatory activities converge towards the project until its completion. These activities serve the project — they are not ends in themselves.
An example might be writing an email to a correspondent. This requires knowing the conventions of greeting, specific vocabulary for written correspondence, and so forth.
The action-oriented approach is today promoted in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). Reference is also made to the “co-actional approach”, which suggests carrying out shared and participatory actions, so as not to limit the process to individual endeavour.
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