History and Science of Tafsîr

History and Science of Tafsîr

Commentary and Exegesis of the Qur’an

What is tafsîr? Tafsîr (literally “explanation”) is the science of Qur’anic exegesis: the commentary that sets out the meaning of the verses of the Qur’an, drawing on the Qur’an itself, the example of the Prophet (Sunna), the hadith, the Arabic language and the context of revelation. This article retraces its history, from the Prophet’s lifetime to the modern era, then presents its main methods.

Chapter 1: The Historical Stages of Tafsîr

During the Prophet’s Lifetime

Tafsîr — the exegesis of the Qur’an — began during the lifetime of the Prophet himself. One of his roles was precisely to explain the Sacred Text, through words but above all through actions. The Qur’an declares: “We sent down upon you the Reminder so that you may explain to the people what was revealed to them, and that they may reflect.” (16:44)

Nevertheless, we do not know to what extent the Prophet spent time commenting on the Qur’an directly. The texts explicitly explanatory of the Sacred Text attributed to the Prophet represent approximately 5% of the textual heritage used in tafsîr. The greater part of prophetic interpretation is indirect: it is diffuse within the actions and words of the Messenger of God — that is, in the hadith.

The Era of the Companions

The texts of the Companions who had witnessed the revelation directly were naturally given greater authority than those of later converts. Those in the Prophet’s close circle — such as ʿAlî, ʿÂ’isha, and Abû Bakr — were privileged witnesses of the genesis of the Sacred Text.

Understanding the Text: The Companions did not all share the same level of knowledge, life experience, or understanding. One of them once heard the Qur’anic passage: “Eat and drink until the white thread becomes distinct from the black thread of dawn.” (2:187) He then took a white thread and a black thread to watch for the beginning of the fast — whereupon the Prophet himself explained to him that this referred to the lines visible on the horizon at dawn.

The Companions’ Interpretation: The Companions interpreted the Qur’an even during the Prophet’s lifetime, and he did not object — though he would correct their errors when needed. Al-Suyûṭî identifies ten Companions known for their knowledge of tafsîr: the Four Rightly-Guided Caliphs, ʿAbd Allâh ibn Masʿûd, ʿAbd Allâh ibn ʿAbbâs, Ubayy ibn Kaʿb, Zayd ibn Thâbit, Abû Mûsâ al-Ashʿarî, and ʿAbd Allâh ibn Zubayr.

The most celebrated Companion in Qur’anic exegesis is unquestionably Ibn ʿAbbâs. The Prophet himself prayed for him: “O God, grant him knowledge of the Book and wisdom.”

The Era of the Successors (Tâbiʿîn)

The Successors — those who came after the Companions — spread across different cities. Historically, three cities became centres of tafsîr learning: Mecca, Medina, and Kufa.

In Mecca, where Ibn ʿAbbâs had taught, his students became the scholars of the region: ʿIkrima (d. 104 AH), Ṭâwûs (d. 106 AH), and ʿAṭâ ibn Rabâḥ (d. 114 AH).

In Medina, Ubayy ibn Kaʿb passed on his knowledge to Abû al-ʿÂliya (d. 90 AH), Muḥammad ibn Kaʿb al-Quraẓî (d. 118 AH), and Zayd ibn Aslam (d. 136 AH).

In Kufa, Ibn Masʿûd transmitted to ʿAlqama ibn Qays (d. 61 AH), Masrûq ibn al-Ajdaʿ (d. 63 AH), and al-Aswad ibn Yazîd (d. 74 AH). The Kufa successors also included al-Hasan al-Baṣrî (d. 110 AH), one of the most eminent of all — born in Medina in 642 CE, who transmitted more than 1,400 hadiths in nine collections.

This period also saw the introduction of Isrâʾîliyyât — narratives of biblical origin — since the biblical stories alluded to elliptically in the Qur’an could be explained with reference to scripture. This, however, opened the door to a wide range of less reliable narratives from various sources. It was also an era in which apocryphal hadiths appeared in large numbers due to political conflicts.

The Era of the Compilations

The next stage in the history of tafsîr is known as the period of compilation. The most important works of this era were produced by hadith scholars, who included tafsîr sections in their collections. Notable names include Yazîd ibn Hârûn al-Sulamî (d. 117 AH), Sufyân al-Thawrî (d. 161 AH), Sufyân ibn ʿUyayna (d. 198 AH), Wakîʿ ibn al-Jarrâḥ (d. 197 AH), Shuʿba ibn al-Ḥajjâj (d. 160 AH), Âdam ibn Abî Iyâs (d. 220 AH), and ʿAbd ibn Ḥumayd (d. 249 AH). Few of these works have survived to the present day.

Gradually, tafsîr literature separated from hadith literature and became an independent discipline. The first major independent tafsir is generally attributed to Muqâtil ibn Sulaymân (d. 150 AH). Then came the monumental work of al-Ṭabarî (839–923 CE), Jâmiʿ al-Bayân ʿan Taʾwîl Ây al-Qurʾân, which gathered together all the known narrations on each verse and became the essential reference for all later exegetes.

Shiite Tafsîrs

In Shia Islam, the basis of Qur’anic interpretation rests on the hadith known as al-thaqalayn (the two weighty things): “I have left among you two weighty matters: the Book of God and the members of my family.” This hadith, transmitted through numerous chains of narrators (mutawâtir), exists in many versions of varying length and reliability.

The first stage of Shiite tafsîr consisted in the compilation of texts attributed to the Prophet and the Imams. The earliest collections were compiled by students of the Imams — notably Imam al-Bâqir, Imam al-Ṣâdiq, and Imam al-Kâẓim. Many passages of the Qur’an were interpreted as allusions to the legitimacy of ʿAlî as the Prophet’s successor, or of the Ahl al-Bayt more broadly as inheritors of spiritual knowledge.

Over time, and particularly following the occultation of the Twelfth Imam (329/941 CE), a new class of Twelver Shia jurist-theologians emerged — gravitating around the Buyid princes and seeking to legitimise their rule through a more rationalist approach to religious authority. This marked the beginning of the development, within Shiism, of a more rationalist school of thought.

The Modern Era

The modern era of tafsîr has seen both a continuation of traditional approaches and the emergence of new methodologies — thematic tafsîr, literary tafsîr, and scientific tafsîr — reflecting the intellectual currents of contemporary Muslim thought. Social, political, and spiritual readings of the Qur’an have all found renewed expression in this period.

Chapter 2: The Science of Tafsîr

Is the Qur’an an Explicit Text?

The revealed Text declares: “We have sent down to you clear signs.” (2:99); “And We have certainly made the Qur’an easy to remember.” (54:22); “And We have made it easy in your tongue so that you may give good tidings to the righteous.” (19:97)

Before entering into the science of tafsîr, it is worth saying a word about the very necessity of tafsîr. If the Sacred Text is “clear” and “explicit”, does one need interpreters — and therefore intermediaries — to access it?

In this regard, one must first distinguish between the muḥkam (clear, decisive) verses and the mutashâbih (ambiguous) verses. The Qur’an itself states: “He it is Who has sent down to you the Book; in it are verses that are precise — they are the foundation of the Book — and others ambiguous. As for those in whose hearts is deviation, they follow the ambiguous part, seeking discord and seeking an interpretation. And no one knows its interpretation except God.” (3:7)

Furthermore, even if the text appears clear in itself, it is not always easily perceived — because the gaze may be troubled. The Qur’anic text says: “Nay, but these are clear signs in the breasts of those who have been given knowledge.” (29:49) Knowledge here is associated with the heart. The term taʾwîl — translated as “interpretation” in the cited verses — derives from the root A-W-L, which denotes origin, the first stage of something. Taʾwîl thus means to return to the first origin. This return requires the purification of the soul and the clarification of one’s inner vision.

Interpretation of the Qur’an by the Qur’an

The most authoritative form of Qur’anic interpretation is the interpretation of the Qur’an by itself. This takes several forms:

1. Explanation of the allusive by the explicit, or of the summary by the detailed. For example, the verse “The path of those upon whom You have bestowed favour” (1:7) is made explicit by: “…those upon whom God has bestowed favour — of the prophets, the truthful, the martyrs, and the righteous.” (4:69)

2. Limitation of the general by the specific, or of the unconditional by the conditional. For example, the verse “…before a day comes when there will be no friendship and no intercession” (2:254) is nuanced by: “That day, friends shall be enemies, except for the God-fearing.” (43:67)

3. Contextual interpretation. The context of revelation (asbâb al-nuzûl) often illuminates a verse’s meaning. Many verses that appear general in wording were in fact addressed to specific situations.

4. Linguistic analysis. The Qur’an itself provides definitions through its usage — a key tool when a word appears in multiple forms across different verses.

Interpretation of the Qur’an by Example (Sunna)

The Sunna — the example of the Prophet in words and deeds — constitutes a major source of Qur’anic interpretation. The Qur’an commands obedience to the Messenger alongside God. The Prophet’s practice clarified ritual obligations (prayer, fasting, pilgrimage) whose broad outlines are indicated in the Qur’an but whose details were transmitted through his example. The Qur’an says: “And We have sent down to you the Reminder so that you may make clear to the people what was sent down to them.” (16:44)

Interpretation of the Qur’an by Hadith

Beyond the Sunna in the strict sense, the body of hadiths contains many statements attributed to the Prophet that directly or indirectly comment on Qur’anic verses. The hadith sciences developed in part precisely to evaluate the reliability of these transmissions. Later exegetes drew on vast hadith collections to illuminate individual verses.

Worship and Ritual Practice

Many Qur’anic injunctions concern ritual worship — prayer, fasting, zakât, pilgrimage. Interpretation here is primarily practical: how the Qur’an’s commands are to be enacted in daily life. The details of these practices were conveyed through the Prophet’s example and the consensus of the scholarly community.

The Abrogation of the Qur’an by the Sunna?

The question of abrogation (naskh) is one of the most debated in the science of tafsîr. The majority view among Sunni and Shia scholars holds that some Qur’anic verses abrogate earlier ones. Scholars holding the contrary view cite verses such as: “There is no changing the words of God.” (10:64) and “Falsehood cannot approach it from before it or from behind it — it is a revelation from a Wise, Praiseworthy [Lord].” (41:42) From their perspective, the so-called “abrogated” (mansûkh) verses in the Qur’an concern previous scriptures — the Torah and the Gospels. Some modern scholars prefer to speak of a progressive unfolding of revelation, rather than abrogation in the strict sense.

The Effort of Interpretation (Ijtihâd)

The effort of interpretation — ijtihâd — is the exercise of scholarly reasoning to derive rulings and meanings that are not explicitly stated in the text. On the one hand, the Prophet could not have explicitly interpreted every verse of the Qur’an during his lifetime. On the other hand, if one considers that the depths of the text contain inexhaustible knowledge, it would have been in vain to await an exhaustive exegesis from the Messenger of God.

The great Sufi master Najm al-Dîn Kubrâ wrote in his commentary on the Qur’an regarding the isolated letters (ḥurûf muqaṭṭaʿa) found at the beginning of certain suras: “If the isolated letters were assembled to infinity, they would in no way exhaust the Word of God. The sphere of expression of these letters cannot be too narrow to contain the ocean of the eternal Word.”

This boundlessness is proclaimed in the Qur’an itself: “Say: If the sea were ink for the words of my Lord, the sea would be exhausted before the words of my Lord were exhausted.” (18:109)